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PERLHACK(1)
NAME
perlhack - How to hack at the Perl internals
DESCRIPTION
This document attempts to explain how Perl development takes place, and
ends with some suggestions for people wanting to become bona fide porters.
The perl5-porters mailing list is where the Perl standard distribution is
maintained and developed. The list can get anywhere from 10 to 150
messages a day, depending on the heatedness of the debate. Most days there
are two or three patches, extensions, features, or bugs being discussed at
a time.
A searchable archive of the list is at either:
http://www.xray.mpe.mpg.de/mailing-lists/perl5-porters/
or
http://archive.develooper.com/perl5-porters@perl.org/
List subscribers (the porters themselves) come in several flavours. Some
are quiet curious lurkers, who rarely pitch in and instead watch the
ongoing development to ensure they're forewarned of new changes or features
in Perl. Some are representatives of vendors, who are there to make sure
that Perl continues to compile and work on their platforms. Some patch any
reported bug that they know how to fix, some are actively patching their
pet area (threads, Win32, the regexp engine), while others seem to do
nothing but complain. In other words, it's your usual mix of technical
people.
Over this group of porters presides Larry Wall. He has the final word in
what does and does not change in the Perl language. Various releases of
Perl are shepherded by a "pumpking", a porter responsible for gathering
patches, deciding on a patch-by-patch, feature-by-feature basis what will
and will not go into the release. For instance, Gurusamy Sarathy was the
pumpking for the 5.6 release of Perl, and Jarkko Hietaniemi was the
pumpking for the 5.8 release, and Rafael Garcia-Suarez holds the pumpking
crown for the 5.10 release.
In addition, various people are pumpkings for different things. For
instance, Andy Dougherty and Jarkko Hietaniemi did a grand job as the
Configure pumpkin up till the 5.8 release. For the 5.10 release H.Merijn
Brand took over.
Larry sees Perl development along the lines of the US government: there's
the Legislature (the porters), the Executive branch (the pumpkings), and
the Supreme Court (Larry). The legislature can discuss and submit patches
to the executive branch all they like, but the executive branch is free to
veto them. Rarely, the Supreme Court will side with the executive branch
over the legislature, or the legislature over the executive branch.
Mostly, however, the legislature and the executive branch are supposed to
get along and work out their differences without impeachment or court
cases.
You might sometimes see reference to Rule 1 and Rule 2. Larry's power as
Supreme Court is expressed in The Rules:
1 Larry is always by definition right about how Perl should behave. This
means he has final veto power on the core functionality.
2 Larry is allowed to change his mind about any matter at a later date,
regardless of whether he previously invoked Rule 1.
Got that? Larry is always right, even when he was wrong. It's rare to see
either Rule exercised, but they are often alluded to.
New features and extensions to the language are contentious, because the
criteria used by the pumpkings, Larry, and other porters to decide which
features should be implemented and incorporated are not codified in a few
small design goals as with some other languages. Instead, the heuristics
are flexible and often difficult to fathom. Here is one person's list,
roughly in decreasing order of importance, of heuristics that new features
have to be weighed against:
Does concept match the general goals of Perl?
These haven't been written anywhere in stone, but one approximation is:
1. Keep it fast, simple, and useful.
2. Keep features/concepts as orthogonal as possible.
3. No arbitrary limits (platforms, data sizes, cultures).
4. Keep it open and exciting to use/patch/advocate Perl everywhere.
5. Either assimilate new technologies, or build bridges to them.
Where is the implementation?
All the talk in the world is useless without an implementation. In
almost every case, the person or people who argue for a new feature
will be expected to be the ones who implement it. Porters capable of
coding new features have their own agendas, and are not available to
implement your (possibly good) idea.
Backwards compatibility
It's a cardinal sin to break existing Perl programs. New warnings are
contentious--some say that a program that emits warnings is not broken,
while others say it is. Adding keywords has the potential to break
programs, changing the meaning of existing token sequences or functions
might break programs.
Could it be a module instead?
Perl 5 has extension mechanisms, modules and XS, specifically to avoid
the need to keep changing the Perl interpreter. You can write modules
that export functions, you can give those functions prototypes so they
can be called like built-in functions, you can even write XS code to
mess with the runtime data structures of the Perl interpreter if you
want to implement really complicated things. If it can be done in a
module instead of in the core, it's highly unlikely to be added.
Is the feature generic enough?
Is this something that only the submitter wants added to the language,
or would it be broadly useful? Sometimes, instead of adding a feature
with a tight focus, the porters might decide to wait until someone
implements the more generalized feature. For instance, instead of
implementing a "delayed evaluation" feature, the porters are waiting
for a macro system that would permit delayed evaluation and much more.
Does it potentially introduce new bugs?
Radical rewrites of large chunks of the Perl interpreter have the
potential to introduce new bugs. The smaller and more localized the
change, the better.
Does it preclude other desirable features?
A patch is likely to be rejected if it closes off future avenues of
development. For instance, a patch that placed a true and final
interpretation on prototypes is likely to be rejected because there are
still options for the future of prototypes that haven't been addressed.
Is the implementation robust?
Good patches (tight code, complete, correct) stand more chance of going
in. Sloppy or incorrect patches might be placed on the back burner
until the pumpking has time to fix, or might be discarded altogether
without further notice.
Is the implementation generic enough to be portable?
The worst patches make use of a system-specific features. It's highly
unlikely that nonportable additions to the Perl language will be
accepted.
Is the implementation tested?
Patches which change behaviour (fixing bugs or introducing new
features) must include regression tests to verify that everything works
as expected. Without tests provided by the original author, how can
anyone else changing perl in the future be sure that they haven't
unwittingly broken the behaviour the patch implements? And without
tests, how can the patch's author be confident that his/her hard work
put into the patch won't be accidentally thrown away by someone in the
future?
Is there enough documentation?
Patches without documentation are probably ill-thought out or
incomplete. Nothing can be added without documentation, so submitting
a patch for the appropriate manpages as well as the source code is
always a good idea.
Is there another way to do it?
Larry said "Although the Perl Slogan is There's More Than One Way to Do
It, I hesitate to make 10 ways to do something". This is a tricky
heuristic to navigate, though--one man's essential addition is another
man's pointless cruft.
Does it create too much work?
Work for the pumpking, work for Perl programmers, work for module
authors, ... Perl is supposed to be easy.
Patches speak louder than words
Working code is always preferred to pie-in-the-sky ideas. A patch to
add a feature stands a much higher chance of making it to the language
than does a random feature request, no matter how fervently argued the
request might be. This ties into "Will it be useful?", as the fact
that someone took the time to make the patch demonstrates a strong
desire for the feature.
If you're on the list, you might hear the word "core" bandied around. It
refers to the standard distribution. "Hacking on the core" means you're
changing the C source code to the Perl interpreter. "A core module" is one
that ships with Perl.
Keeping in sync
The source code to the Perl interpreter, in its different versions, is kept
in a repository managed by a revision control system ( which is currently
the Perforce program, see http://perforce.com/ ). The pumpkings and a few
others have access to the repository to check in changes. Periodically the
pumpking for the development version of Perl will release a new version, so
the rest of the porters can see what's changed. The current state of the
main trunk of repository, and patches that describe the individual changes
that have happened since the last public release are available at this
location:
http://public.activestate.com/pub/apc/
ftp://public.activestate.com/pub/apc/
If you're looking for a particular change, or a change that affected a
particular set of files, you may find the Perl Repository Browser useful:
http://public.activestate.com/cgi-bin/perlbrowse
You may also want to subscribe to the perl5-changes mailing list to receive
a copy of each patch that gets submitted to the maintenance and development
"branches" of the perl repository. See http://lists.perl.org/ for
subscription information.
If you are a member of the perl5-porters mailing list, it is a good thing
to keep in touch with the most recent changes. If not only to verify if
what you would have posted as a bug report isn't already solved in the most
recent available perl development branch, also known as perl-current,
bleading edge perl, bleedperl or bleadperl.
Needless to say, the source code in perl-current is usually in a perpetual
state of evolution. You should expect it to be very buggy. Do not use it
for any purpose other than testing and development.
Keeping in sync with the most recent branch can be done in several ways,
but the most convenient and reliable way is using rsync, available at
ftp://rsync.samba.org/pub/rsync/ . (You can also get the most recent
branch by FTP.)
If you choose to keep in sync using rsync, there are two approaches to
doing so:
rsync'ing the source tree
Presuming you are in the directory where your perl source resides and
you have rsync installed and available, you can "upgrade" to the
bleadperl using:
# rsync -avz rsync://public.activestate.com/perl-current/ .
This takes care of updating every single item in the source tree to the
latest applied patch level, creating files that are new (to your
distribution) and setting date/time stamps of existing files to reflect
the bleadperl status.
Note that this will not delete any files that were in '.' before the
rsync. Once you are sure that the rsync is running correctly, run it
with the --delete and the --dry-run options like this:
# rsync -avz --delete --dry-run rsync://public.activestate.com/perl-current/ .
This will simulate an rsync run that also deletes files not present in
the bleadperl master copy. Observe the results from this run closely.
If you are sure that the actual run would delete no files precious to
you, you could remove the '--dry-run' option.
You can than check what patch was the latest that was applied by
looking in the file .patch, which will show the number of the latest
patch.
If you have more than one machine to keep in sync, and not all of them
have access to the WAN (so you are not able to rsync all the source
trees to the real source), there are some ways to get around this
problem.
Using rsync over the LAN
Set up a local rsync server which makes the rsynced source tree
available to the LAN and sync the other machines against this
directory.
From http://rsync.samba.org/README.html :
"Rsync uses rsh or ssh for communication. It does not need to be
setuid and requires no special privileges for installation. It
does not require an inetd entry or a daemon. You must, however,
have a working rsh or ssh system. Using ssh is recommended for
its security features."
Using pushing over the NFS
Having the other systems mounted over the NFS, you can take an
active pushing approach by checking the just updated tree against
the other not-yet synced trees. An example would be
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
use strict;
use File::Copy;
my %MF = map {
m/(\S+)/;
$1 => [ (stat $1)[2, 7, 9] ]; # mode, size, mtime
} `cat MANIFEST`;
my %remote = map { $_ => "/$_/pro/3gl/CPAN/perl-5.7.1" } qw(host1 host2);
foreach my $host (keys %remote) {
unless (-d $remote{$host}) {
print STDERR "Cannot Xsync for host $host\n";
next;
}
foreach my $file (keys %MF) {
my $rfile = "$remote{$host}/$file";
my ($mode, $size, $mtime) = (stat $rfile)[2, 7, 9];
defined $size or ($mode, $size, $mtime) = (0, 0, 0);
$size == $MF{$file}[1] && $mtime == $MF{$file}[2] and next;
printf "%4s %-34s %8d %9d %8d %9d\n",
$host, $file, $MF{$file}[1], $MF{$file}[2], $size, $mtime;
unlink $rfile;
copy ($file, $rfile);
utime time, $MF{$file}[2], $rfile;
chmod $MF{$file}[0], $rfile;
}
}
though this is not perfect. It could be improved with checking file
checksums before updating. Not all NFS systems support reliable
utime support (when used over the NFS).
rsync'ing the patches
The source tree is maintained by the pumpking who applies patches to
the files in the tree. These patches are either created by the pumpking
himself using "diff -c" after updating the file manually or by applying
patches sent in by posters on the perl5-porters list. These patches
are also saved and rsync'able, so you can apply them yourself to the
source files.
Presuming you are in a directory where your patches reside, you can get
them in sync with
# rsync -avz rsync://public.activestate.com/perl-current-diffs/ .
This makes sure the latest available patch is downloaded to your patch
directory.
It's then up to you to apply these patches, using something like
# last=`ls -t *.gz | sed q`
# rsync -avz rsync://public.activestate.com/perl-current-diffs/ .
# find . -name '*.gz' -newer $last -exec gzcat {} \; >blead.patch
# cd ../perl-current
# patch -p1 -N <../perl-current-diffs/blead.patch
or, since this is only a hint towards how it works, use CPAN-patchaperl
from Andreas Knig to have better control over the patching process.
Why rsync the source tree
It's easier to rsync the source tree
Since you don't have to apply the patches yourself, you are sure all
files in the source tree are in the right state.
It's more reliable
While both the rsync-able source and patch areas are automatically
updated every few minutes, keep in mind that applying patches may
sometimes mean careful hand-holding, especially if your version of the
"patch" program does not understand how to deal with new files, files
with 8-bit characters, or files without trailing newlines.
Why rsync the patches
It's easier to rsync the patches
If you have more than one machine that you want to keep in track with
bleadperl, it's easier to rsync the patches only once and then apply
them to all the source trees on the different machines.
In case you try to keep in pace on 5 different machines, for which only
one of them has access to the WAN, rsync'ing all the source trees
should than be done 5 times over the NFS. Having rsync'ed the patches
only once, I can apply them to all the source trees automatically. Need
you say more ;-)
It's a good reference
If you do not only like to have the most recent development branch, but
also like to fix bugs, or extend features, you want to dive into the
sources. If you are a seasoned perl core diver, you don't need no
manuals, tips, roadmaps, perlguts.pod or other aids to find your way
around. But if you are a starter, the patches may help you in finding
where you should start and how to change the bits that bug you.
The file Changes is updated on occasions the pumpking sees as his own
little sync points. On those occasions, he releases a tar-ball of the
current source tree (i.e. perl@7582.tar.gz), which will be an excellent
point to start with when choosing to use the 'rsync the patches'
scheme. Starting with perl@7582, which means a set of source files on
which the latest applied patch is number 7582, you apply all succeeding
patches available from then on (7583, 7584, ...).
You can use the patches later as a kind of search archive.
Finding a start point
If you want to fix/change the behaviour of function/feature Foo,
just scan the patches for patches that mention Foo either in the
subject, the comments, or the body of the fix. A good chance the
patch shows you the files that are affected by that patch which are
very likely to be the starting point of your journey into the guts
of perl.
Finding how to fix a bug
If you've found where the function/feature Foo misbehaves, but you
don't know how to fix it (but you do know the change you want to
make), you can, again, peruse the patches for similar changes and
look how others apply the fix.
Finding the source of misbehaviour
When you keep in sync with bleadperl, the pumpking would love to
see that the community efforts really work. So after each of his
sync points, you are to 'make test' to check if everything is still
in working order. If it is, you do 'make ok', which will send an OK
report to perlbug@perl.org. (If you do not have access to a mailer
from the system you just finished successfully 'make test', you can
do 'make okfile', which creates the file "perl.ok", which you can
than take to your favourite mailer and mail yourself).
But of course, as always, things will not always lead to a success
path, and one or more test do not pass the 'make test'. Before
sending in a bug report (using 'make nok' or 'make nokfile'), check
the mailing list if someone else has reported the bug already and
if so, confirm it by replying to that message. If not, you might
want to trace the source of that misbehaviour before sending in the
bug, which will help all the other porters in finding the solution.
Here the saved patches come in very handy. You can check the list
of patches to see which patch changed what file and what change
caused the misbehaviour. If you note that in the bug report, it
saves the one trying to solve it, looking for that point.
If searching the patches is too bothersome, you might consider using
perl's bugtron to find more information about discussions and ramblings
on posted bugs.
If you want to get the best of both worlds, rsync both the source tree
for convenience, reliability and ease and rsync the patches for
reference.
Working with the source
Because you cannot use the Perforce client, you cannot easily generate
diffs against the repository, nor will merges occur when you update via
rsync. If you edit a file locally and then rsync against the latest
source, changes made in the remote copy will overwrite your local versions!
The best way to deal with this is to maintain a tree of symlinks to the
rsync'd source. Then, when you want to edit a file, you remove the
symlink, copy the real file into the other tree, and edit it. You can then
diff your edited file against the original to generate a patch, and you can
safely update the original tree.
Perl's Configure script can generate this tree of symlinks for you. The
following example assumes that you have used rsync to pull a copy of the
Perl source into the perl-rsync directory. In the directory above that
one, you can execute the following commands:
mkdir perl-dev
cd perl-dev
../perl-rsync/Configure -Dmksymlinks -Dusedevel -D"optimize=-g"
This will start the Perl configuration process. After a few prompts, you
should see something like this:
Symbolic links are supported.
Checking how to test for symbolic links...
Your builtin 'test -h' may be broken.
Trying external '/usr/bin/test -h'.
You can test for symbolic links with '/usr/bin/test -h'.
Creating the symbolic links...
(First creating the subdirectories...)
(Then creating the symlinks...)
The specifics may vary based on your operating system, of course. After
you see this, you can abort the Configure script, and you will see that the
directory you are in has a tree of symlinks to the perl-rsync directories
and files.
If you plan to do a lot of work with the Perl source, here are some Bourne
shell script functions that can make your life easier:
function edit {
if [ -L $1 ]; then
mv $1 $1.orig
cp $1.orig $1
vi $1
else
/bin/vi $1
fi
}
function unedit {
if [ -L $1.orig ]; then
rm $1
mv $1.orig $1
fi
}
Replace "vi" with your favorite flavor of editor.
Here is another function which will quickly generate a patch for the files
which have been edited in your symlink tree:
mkpatchorig() {
local diffopts
for f in `find . -name '*.orig' | sed s,^\./,,`
do
case `echo $f | sed 's,.orig$,,;s,.*\.,,'` in
c) diffopts=-p ;;
pod) diffopts='-F^=' ;;
*) diffopts= ;;
esac
diff -du $diffopts $f `echo $f | sed 's,.orig$,,'`
done
}
This function produces patches which include enough context to make your
changes obvious. This makes it easier for the Perl pumpking(s) to review
them when you send them to the perl5-porters list, and that means they're
more likely to get applied.
This function assumed a GNU diff, and may require some tweaking for other
diff variants.
Perlbug administration
There is a single remote administrative interface for modifying bug status,
category, open issues etc. using the RT bugtracker system, maintained by
Robert Spier. Become an administrator, and close any bugs you can get your
sticky mitts on:
http://rt.perl.org
The bugtracker mechanism for perl5 bugs in particular is at:
http://bugs6.perl.org/perlbug
To email the bug system administrators:
"perlbug-admin" <perlbug-admin@perl.org>
Submitting patches
Always submit patches to perl5-porters@perl.org. If you're patching a core
module and there's an author listed, send the author a copy (see "Patching
a core module"). This lets other porters review your patch, which catches
a surprising number of errors in patches. Either use the diff program
(available in source code form from ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/ , or use
Johan Vromans' makepatch (available from CPAN/authors/id/JV/). Unified
diffs are preferred, but context diffs are accepted. Do not send RCS-style
diffs or diffs without context lines. More information is given in the
Porting/patching.pod file in the Perl source distribution. Please patch
against the latest development version (e.g., if you're fixing a bug in the
5.005 track, patch against the latest 5.005_5x version). Only patches that
survive the heat of the development branch get applied to maintenance
versions.
Your patch should update the documentation and test suite. See "Writing a
test".
To report a bug in Perl, use the program perlbug which comes with Perl (if
you can't get Perl to work, send mail to the address perlbug@perl.org or
perlbug@perl.com). Reporting bugs through perlbug feeds into the automated
bug-tracking system, access to which is provided through the web at
http://bugs.perl.org/ . It often pays to check the archives of the
perl5-porters mailing list to see whether the bug you're reporting has been
reported before, and if so whether it was considered a bug. See above for
the location of the searchable archives.
The CPAN testers ( http://testers.cpan.org/ ) are a group of volunteers who
test CPAN modules on a variety of platforms. Perl Smokers (
http://archives.develooper.com/daily-build@perl.org/ ) automatically tests
Perl source releases on platforms with various configurations. Both
efforts welcome volunteers.
It's a good idea to read and lurk for a while before chipping in. That way
you'll get to see the dynamic of the conversations, learn the personalities
of the players, and hopefully be better prepared to make a useful
contribution when do you speak up.
If after all this you still think you want to join the perl5-porters
mailing list, send mail to perl5-porters-subscribe@perl.org. To
unsubscribe, send mail to perl5-porters-unsubscribe@perl.org.
To hack on the Perl guts, you'll need to read the following things:
perlguts
This is of paramount importance, since it's the documentation of what
goes where in the Perl source. Read it over a couple of times and it
might start to make sense - don't worry if it doesn't yet, because the
best way to study it is to read it in conjunction with poking at Perl
source, and we'll do that later on.
You might also want to look at Gisle Aas's illustrated perlguts -
there's no guarantee that this will be absolutely up-to-date with the
latest documentation in the Perl core, but the fundamentals will be
right. ( http://gisle.aas.no/perl/illguts/ )
perlxstut and perlxs
A working knowledge of XSUB programming is incredibly useful for core
hacking; XSUBs use techniques drawn from the PP code, the portion of the
guts that actually executes a Perl program. It's a lot gentler to learn
those techniques from simple examples and explanation than from the core
itself.
perlapi
The documentation for the Perl API explains what some of the internal
functions do, as well as the many macros used in the source.
Porting/pumpkin.pod
This is a collection of words of wisdom for a Perl porter; some of it is
only useful to the pumpkin holder, but most of it applies to anyone
wanting to go about Perl development.
The perl5-porters FAQ
This should be available from http://simon-cozens.org/writings/p5p-faq ;
alternatively, you can get the FAQ emailed to you by sending mail to
"perl5-porters-faq@perl.org". It contains hints on reading
perl5-porters, information on how perl5-porters works and how Perl
development in general works.
Finding Your Way Around
Perl maintenance can be split into a number of areas, and certain people
(pumpkins) will have responsibility for each area. These areas sometimes
correspond to files or directories in the source kit. Among the areas are:
Core modules
Modules shipped as part of the Perl core live in the lib/ and ext/
subdirectories: lib/ is for the pure-Perl modules, and ext/ contains the
core XS modules.
Tests
There are tests for nearly all the modules, built-ins and major bits of
functionality. Test files all have a .t suffix. Module tests live in
the lib/ and ext/ directories next to the module being tested. Others
live in t/. See "Writing a test"
Documentation
Documentation maintenance includes looking after everything in the pod/
directory, (as well as contributing new documentation) and the
documentation to the modules in core.
Configure
The configure process is the way we make Perl portable across the myriad
of operating systems it supports. Responsibility for the configure,
build and installation process, as well as the overall portability of
the core code rests with the configure pumpkin - others help out with
individual operating systems.
The files involved are the operating system directories, (win32/, os2/,
vms/ and so on) the shell scripts which generate config.h and Makefile,
as well as the metaconfig files which generate Configure. (metaconfig
isn't included in the core distribution.)
Interpreter
And of course, there's the core of the Perl interpreter itself. Let's
have a look at that in a little more detail.
Before we leave looking at the layout, though, don't forget that MANIFEST
contains not only the file names in the Perl distribution, but short
descriptions of what's in them, too. For an overview of the important
files, try this:
perl -lne 'print if /^[^\/]+\.[ch]\s+/' MANIFEST
Elements of the interpreter
The work of the interpreter has two main stages: compiling the code into
the internal representation, or bytecode, and then executing it. "Compiled
code" in perlguts explains exactly how the compilation stage happens.
Here is a short breakdown of perl's operation:
Startup
The action begins in perlmain.c. (or miniperlmain.c for miniperl) This
is very high-level code, enough to fit on a single screen, and it
resembles the code found in perlembed; most of the real action takes
place in perl.c
First, perlmain.c allocates some memory and constructs a Perl
interpreter:
1 PERL_SYS_INIT3(&argc,&argv,&env);
2
3 if (!PL_do_undump) {
4 my_perl = perl_alloc();
5 if (!my_perl)
6 exit(1);
7 perl_construct(my_perl);
8 PL_perl_destruct_level = 0;
9 }
Line 1 is a macro, and its definition is dependent on your operating
system. Line 3 references "PL_do_undump", a global variable - all global
variables in Perl start with "PL_". This tells you whether the current
running program was created with the "-u" flag to perl and then undump,
which means it's going to be false in any sane context.
Line 4 calls a function in perl.c to allocate memory for a Perl
interpreter. It's quite a simple function, and the guts of it looks like
this:
my_perl = (PerlInterpreter*)PerlMem_malloc(sizeof(PerlInterpreter));
Here you see an example of Perl's system abstraction, which we'll see
later: "PerlMem_malloc" is either your system's "malloc", or Perl's own
"malloc" as defined in malloc.c if you selected that option at configure
time.
Next, in line 7, we construct the interpreter; this sets up all the
special variables that Perl needs, the stacks, and so on.
Now we pass Perl the command line options, and tell it to go:
exitstatus = perl_parse(my_perl, xs_init, argc, argv, (char **)NULL);
if (!exitstatus) {
exitstatus = perl_run(my_perl);
}
"perl_parse" is actually a wrapper around "S_parse_body", as defined in
perl.c, which processes the command line options, sets up any statically
linked XS modules, opens the program and calls "yyparse" to parse it.
Parsing
The aim of this stage is to take the Perl source, and turn it into an op
tree. We'll see what one of those looks like later. Strictly speaking,
there's three things going on here.
"yyparse", the parser, lives in perly.c, although you're better off
reading the original YACC input in perly.y. (Yes, Virginia, there is a
YACC grammar for Perl!) The job of the parser is to take your code and
"understand" it, splitting it into sentences, deciding which operands go
with which operators and so on.
The parser is nobly assisted by the lexer, which chunks up your input
into tokens, and decides what type of thing each token is: a variable
name, an operator, a bareword, a subroutine, a core function, and so on.
The main point of entry to the lexer is "yylex", and that and its
associated routines can be found in toke.c. Perl isn't much like other
computer languages; it's highly context sensitive at times, it can be
tricky to work out what sort of token something is, or where a token
ends. As such, there's a lot of interplay between the tokeniser and the
parser, which can get pretty frightening if you're not used to it.
As the parser understands a Perl program, it builds up a tree of
operations for the interpreter to perform during execution. The routines
which construct and link together the various operations are to be found
in op.c, and will be examined later.
Optimization
Now the parsing stage is complete, and the finished tree represents the
operations that the Perl interpreter needs to perform to execute our
program. Next, Perl does a dry run over the tree looking for
optimisations: constant expressions such as "3 + 4" will be computed
now, and the optimizer will also see if any multiple operations can be
replaced with a single one. For instance, to fetch the variable $foo,
instead of grabbing the glob *foo and looking at the scalar component,
the optimizer fiddles the op tree to use a function which directly looks
up the scalar in question. The main optimizer is "peep" in op.c, and
many ops have their own optimizing functions.
Running
Now we're finally ready to go: we have compiled Perl byte code, and all
that's left to do is run it. The actual execution is done by the
"runops_standard" function in run.c; more specifically, it's done by
these three innocent looking lines:
while ((PL_op = CALL_FPTR(PL_op->op_ppaddr)(aTHX))) {
PERL_ASYNC_CHECK();
}
You may be more comfortable with the Perl version of that:
PERL_ASYNC_CHECK() while $Perl::op = &{$Perl::op->{function}};
Well, maybe not. Anyway, each op contains a function pointer, which
stipulates the function which will actually carry out the operation.
This function will return the next op in the sequence - this allows for
things like "if" which choose the next op dynamically at run time. The
"PERL_ASYNC_CHECK" makes sure that things like signals interrupt
execution if required.
The actual functions called are known as PP code, and they're spread
between four files: pp_hot.c contains the "hot" code, which is most
often used and highly optimized, pp_sys.c contains all the system-
specific functions, pp_ctl.c contains the functions which implement
control structures ("if", "while" and the like) and pp.c contains
everything else. These are, if you like, the C code for Perl's built-in
functions and operators.
Note that each "pp_" function is expected to return a pointer to the
next op. Calls to perl subs (and eval blocks) are handled within the
same runops loop, and do not consume extra space on the C stack. For
example, "pp_entersub" and "pp_entertry" just push a "CxSUB" or "CxEVAL"
block struct onto the context stack which contain the address of the op
following the sub call or eval. They then return the first op of that
sub or eval block, and so execution continues of that sub or block.
Later, a "pp_leavesub" or "pp_leavetry" op pops the "CxSUB" or "CxEVAL",
retrieves the return op from it, and returns it.
Exception handing
Perl's exception handing (i.e. "die" etc) is built on top of the low-
level "setjmp()"/"longjmp()" C-library functions. These basically
provide a way to capture the current PC and SP registers and later
restore them; i.e. a "longjmp()" continues at the point in code where a
previous "setjmp()" was done, with anything further up on the C stack
being lost. This is why code should always save values using "SAVE_FOO"
rather than in auto variables.
The perl core wraps "setjmp()" etc in the macros "JMPENV_PUSH" and
"JMPENV_JUMP". The basic rule of perl exceptions is that "exit", and
"die" (in the absence of "eval") perform a JMPENV_JUMP(2), while "die"
within "eval" does a JMPENV_JUMP(3).
At entry points to perl, such as "perl_parse()", "perl_run()" and
"call_sv(cv, G_EVAL)" each does a "JMPENV_PUSH", then enter a runops
loop or whatever, and handle possible exception returns. For a 2 return,
final cleanup is performed, such as popping stacks and calling "CHECK"
or "END" blocks. Amongst other things, this is how scope cleanup still
occurs during an "exit".
If a "die" can find a "CxEVAL" block on the context stack, then the
stack is popped to that level and the return op in that block is
assigned to "PL_restartop"; then a JMPENV_JUMP(3) is performed. This
normally passes control back to the guard. In the case of "perl_run" and
"call_sv", a non-null "PL_restartop" triggers re-entry to the runops
loop. The is the normal way that "die" or "croak" is handled within an
"eval".
Sometimes ops are executed within an inner runops loop, such as tie,
sort or overload code. In this case, something like
sub FETCH { eval { die } }
would cause a longjmp right back to the guard in "perl_run", popping
both runops loops, which is clearly incorrect. One way to avoid this is
for the tie code to do a "JMPENV_PUSH" before executing "FETCH" in the
inner runops loop, but for efficiency reasons, perl in fact just sets a
flag, using "CATCH_SET(TRUE)". The "pp_require", "pp_entereval" and
"pp_entertry" ops check this flag, and if true, they call "docatch",
which does a "JMPENV_PUSH" and starts a new runops level to execute the
code, rather than doing it on the current loop.
As a further optimisation, on exit from the eval block in the "FETCH",
execution of the code following the block is still carried on in the
inner loop. When an exception is raised, "docatch" compares the
"JMPENV" level of the "CxEVAL" with "PL_top_env" and if they differ,
just re-throws the exception. In this way any inner loops get popped.
Here's an example.
1: eval { tie @a, 'A' };
2: sub A::TIEARRAY {
3: eval { die };
4: die;
5: }
To run this code, "perl_run" is called, which does a "JMPENV_PUSH" then
enters a runops loop. This loop executes the eval and tie ops on line 1,
with the eval pushing a "CxEVAL" onto the context stack.
The "pp_tie" does a "CATCH_SET(TRUE)", then starts a second runops loop
to execute the body of "TIEARRAY". When it executes the entertry op on
line 3, "CATCH_GET" is true, so "pp_entertry" calls "docatch" which does
a "JMPENV_PUSH" and starts a third runops loop, which then executes the
die op. At this point the C call stack looks like this:
Perl_pp_die
Perl_runops # third loop
S_docatch_body
S_docatch
Perl_pp_entertry
Perl_runops # second loop
S_call_body
Perl_call_sv
Perl_pp_tie
Perl_runops # first loop
S_run_body
perl_run
main
and the context and data stacks, as shown by "-Dstv", look like:
STACK 0: MAIN
CX 0: BLOCK =>
CX 1: EVAL => AV() PV("A"\0)
retop=leave
STACK 1: MAGIC
CX 0: SUB =>
retop=(null)
CX 1: EVAL => *
retop=nextstate
The die pops the first "CxEVAL" off the context stack, sets
"PL_restartop" from it, does a JMPENV_JUMP(3), and control returns to
the top "docatch". This then starts another third-level runops level,
which executes the nextstate, pushmark and die ops on line 4. At the
point that the second "pp_die" is called, the C call stack looks exactly
like that above, even though we are no longer within an inner eval; this
is because of the optimization mentioned earlier. However, the context
stack now looks like this, ie with the top CxEVAL popped:
STACK 0: MAIN
CX 0: BLOCK =>
CX 1: EVAL => AV() PV("A"\0)
retop=leave
STACK 1: MAGIC
CX 0: SUB =>
retop=(null)
The die on line 4 pops the context stack back down to the CxEVAL,
leaving it as:
STACK 0: MAIN
CX 0: BLOCK =>
As usual, "PL_restartop" is extracted from the "CxEVAL", and a
JMPENV_JUMP(3) done, which pops the C stack back to the docatch:
S_docatch
Perl_pp_entertry
Perl_runops # second loop
S_call_body
Perl_call_sv
Perl_pp_tie
Perl_runops # first loop
S_run_body
perl_run
main
In this case, because the "JMPENV" level recorded in the "CxEVAL"
differs from the current one, "docatch" just does a JMPENV_JUMP(3) and
the C stack unwinds to:
perl_run
main
Because "PL_restartop" is non-null, "run_body" starts a new runops loop
and execution continues.
Internal Variable Types
You should by now have had a look at perlguts, which tells you about Perl's
internal variable types: SVs, HVs, AVs and the rest. If not, do that now.
These variables are used not only to represent Perl-space variables, but
also any constants in the code, as well as some structures completely
internal to Perl. The symbol table, for instance, is an ordinary Perl hash.
Your code is represented by an SV as it's read into the parser; any program
files you call are opened via ordinary Perl filehandles, and so on.
The core Devel::Peek module lets us examine SVs from a Perl program. Let's
see, for instance, how Perl treats the constant "hello".
% perl -MDevel::Peek -e 'Dump("hello")'
1 SV = PV(0xa041450) at 0xa04ecbc
2 REFCNT = 1
3 FLAGS = (POK,READONLY,pPOK)
4 PV = 0xa0484e0 "hello"\0
5 CUR = 5
6 LEN = 6
Reading "Devel::Peek" output takes a bit of practise, so let's go through
it line by line.
Line 1 tells us we're looking at an SV which lives at 0xa04ecbc in memory.
SVs themselves are very simple structures, but they contain a pointer to a
more complex structure. In this case, it's a PV, a structure which holds a
string value, at location 0xa041450. Line 2 is the reference count; there
are no other references to this data, so it's 1.
Line 3 are the flags for this SV - it's OK to use it as a PV, it's a read-
only SV (because it's a constant) and the data is a PV internally. Next
we've got the contents of the string, starting at location 0xa0484e0.
Line 5 gives us the current length of the string - note that this does not
include the null terminator. Line 6 is not the length of the string, but
the length of the currently allocated buffer; as the string grows, Perl
automatically extends the available storage via a routine called "SvGROW".
You can get at any of these quantities from C very easily; just add "Sv" to
the name of the field shown in the snippet, and you've got a macro which
will return the value: "SvCUR(sv)" returns the current length of the
string, "SvREFCOUNT(sv)" returns the reference count, "SvPV(sv, len)"
returns the string itself with its length, and so on. More macros to
manipulate these properties can be found in perlguts.
Let's take an example of manipulating a PV, from "sv_catpvn", in sv.c
1 void
2 Perl_sv_catpvn(pTHX_ register SV *sv, register const char *ptr, register STRLEN len)
3 {
4 STRLEN tlen;
5 char *junk;
6 junk = SvPV_force(sv, tlen);
7 SvGROW(sv, tlen + len + 1);
8 if (ptr == junk)
9 ptr = SvPVX(sv);
10 Move(ptr,SvPVX(sv)+tlen,len,char);
11 SvCUR(sv) += len;
12 *SvEND(sv) = '\0';
13 (void)SvPOK_only_UTF8(sv); /* validate pointer */
14 SvTAINT(sv);
15 }
This is a function which adds a string, "ptr", of length "len" onto the end
of the PV stored in "sv". The first thing we do in line 6 is make sure that
the SV has a valid PV, by calling the "SvPV_force" macro to force a PV. As
a side effect, "tlen" gets set to the current value of the PV, and the PV
itself is returned to "junk".
In line 7, we make sure that the SV will have enough room to accommodate
the old string, the new string and the null terminator. If "LEN" isn't big
enough, "SvGROW" will reallocate space for us.
Now, if "junk" is the same as the string we're trying to add, we can grab
the string directly from the SV; "SvPVX" is the address of the PV in the
SV.
Line 10 does the actual catenation: the "Move" macro moves a chunk of
memory around: we move the string "ptr" to the end of the PV - that's the
start of the PV plus its current length. We're moving "len" bytes of type
"char". After doing so, we need to tell Perl we've extended the string, by
altering "CUR" to reflect the new length. "SvEND" is a macro which gives us
the end of the string, so that needs to be a "\0".
Line 13 manipulates the flags; since we've changed the PV, any IV or NV
values will no longer be valid: if we have "$a=10; $a.="6";" we don't want
to use the old IV of 10. "SvPOK_only_utf8" is a special UTF-8-aware version
of "SvPOK_only", a macro which turns off the IOK and NOK flags and turns on
POK. The final "SvTAINT" is a macro which launders tainted data if taint
mode is turned on.
AVs and HVs are more complicated, but SVs are by far the most common
variable type being thrown around. Having seen something of how we
manipulate these, let's go on and look at how the op tree is constructed.
Op Trees
First, what is the op tree, anyway? The op tree is the parsed
representation of your program, as we saw in our section on parsing, and
it's the sequence of operations that Perl goes through to execute your
program, as we saw in "Running".
An op is a fundamental operation that Perl can perform: all the built-in
functions and operators are ops, and there are a series of ops which deal
with concepts the interpreter needs internally - entering and leaving a
block, ending a statement, fetching a variable, and so on.
The op tree is connected in two ways: you can imagine that there are two
"routes" through it, two orders in which you can traverse the tree. First,
parse order reflects how the parser understood the code, and secondly,
execution order tells perl what order to perform the operations in.
The easiest way to examine the op tree is to stop Perl after it has
finished parsing, and get it to dump out the tree. This is exactly what the
compiler backends B::Terse, B::Concise and B::Debug do.
Let's have a look at how Perl sees "$a = $b + $c":
% perl -MO=Terse -e '$a=$b+$c'
1 LISTOP (0x8179888) leave
2 OP (0x81798b0) enter
3 COP (0x8179850) nextstate
4 BINOP (0x8179828) sassign
5 BINOP (0x8179800) add [1]
6 UNOP (0x81796e0) null [15]
7 SVOP (0x80fafe0) gvsv GV (0x80fa4cc) *b
8 UNOP (0x81797e0) null [15]
9 SVOP (0x8179700) gvsv GV (0x80efeb0) *c
10 UNOP (0x816b4f0) null [15]
11 SVOP (0x816dcf0) gvsv GV (0x80fa460) *a
Let's start in the middle, at line 4. This is a BINOP, a binary operator,
which is at location 0x8179828. The specific operator in question is
"sassign" - scalar assignment - and you can find the code which implements
it in the function "pp_sassign" in pp_hot.c. As a binary operator, it has
two children: the add operator, providing the result of "$b+$c", is
uppermost on line 5, and the left hand side is on line 10.
Line 10 is the null op: this does exactly nothing. What is that doing
there? If you see the null op, it's a sign that something has been
optimized away after parsing. As we mentioned in "Optimization", the
optimization stage sometimes converts two operations into one, for example
when fetching a scalar variable. When this happens, instead of rewriting
the op tree and cleaning up the dangling pointers, it's easier just to
replace the redundant operation with the null op. Originally, the tree
would have looked like this:
10 SVOP (0x816b4f0) rv2sv [15]
11 SVOP (0x816dcf0) gv GV (0x80fa460) *a
That is, fetch the "a" entry from the main symbol table, and then look at
the scalar component of it: "gvsv" ("pp_gvsv" into pp_hot.c) happens to do
both these things.
The right hand side, starting at line 5 is similar to what we've just seen:
we have the "add" op ("pp_add" also in pp_hot.c) add together two "gvsv"s.
Now, what's this about?
1 LISTOP (0x8179888) leave
2 OP (0x81798b0) enter
3 COP (0x8179850) nextstate
"enter" and "leave" are scoping ops, and their job is to perform any
housekeeping every time you enter and leave a block: lexical variables are
tidied up, unreferenced variables are destroyed, and so on. Every program
will have those first three lines: "leave" is a list, and its children are
all the statements in the block. Statements are delimited by "nextstate",
so a block is a collection of "nextstate" ops, with the ops to be performed
for each statement being the children of "nextstate". "enter" is a single
op which functions as a marker.
That's how Perl parsed the program, from top to bottom:
Program
|
Statement
|
=
/ \
/ \
$a +
/ \
$b $c
However, it's impossible to perform the operations in this order: you have
to find the values of $b and $c before you add them together, for instance.
So, the other thread that runs through the op tree is the execution order:
each op has a field "op_next" which points to the next op to be run, so
following these pointers tells us how perl executes the code. We can
traverse the tree in this order using the "exec" option to "B::Terse":
% perl -MO=Terse,exec -e '$a=$b+$c'
1 OP (0x8179928) enter
2 COP (0x81798c8) nextstate
3 SVOP (0x81796c8) gvsv GV (0x80fa4d4) *b
4 SVOP (0x8179798) gvsv GV (0x80efeb0) *c
5 BINOP (0x8179878) add [1]
6 SVOP (0x816dd38) gvsv GV (0x80fa468) *a
7 BINOP (0x81798a0) sassign
8 LISTOP (0x8179900) leave
This probably makes more sense for a human: enter a block, start a
statement. Get the values of $b and $c, and add them together. Find $a,
and assign one to the other. Then leave.
The way Perl builds up these op trees in the parsing process can be
unravelled by examining perly.y, the YACC grammar. Let's take the piece we
need to construct the tree for "$a = $b + $c"
1 term : term ASSIGNOP term
2 { $$ = newASSIGNOP(OPf_STACKED, $1, $2, $3); }
3 | term ADDOP term
4 { $$ = newBINOP($2, 0, scalar($1), scalar($3)); }
If you're not used to reading BNF grammars, this is how it works: You're
fed certain things by the tokeniser, which generally end up in upper case.
Here, "ADDOP", is provided when the tokeniser sees "+" in your code.
"ASSIGNOP" is provided when "=" is used for assigning. These are "terminal
symbols", because you can't get any simpler than them.
The grammar, lines one and three of the snippet above, tells you how to
build up more complex forms. These complex forms, "non-terminal symbols"
are generally placed in lower case. "term" here is a non-terminal symbol,
representing a single expression.
The grammar gives you the following rule: you can make the thing on the
left of the colon if you see all the things on the right in sequence. This
is called a "reduction", and the aim of parsing is to completely reduce the
input. There are several different ways you can perform a reduction,
separated by vertical bars: so, "term" followed by "=" followed by "term"
makes a "term", and "term" followed by "+" followed by "term" can also make
a "term".
So, if you see two terms with an "=" or "+", between them, you can turn
them into a single expression. When you do this, you execute the code in
the block on the next line: if you see "=", you'll do the code in line 2.
If you see "+", you'll do the code in line 4. It's this code which
contributes to the op tree.
| term ADDOP term
{ $$ = newBINOP($2, 0, scalar($1), scalar($3)); }
What this does is creates a new binary op, and feeds it a number of
variables. The variables refer to the tokens: $1 is the first token in the
input, $2 the second, and so on - think regular expression backreferences.
$$ is the op returned from this reduction. So, we call "newBINOP" to create
a new binary operator. The first parameter to "newBINOP", a function in
op.c, is the op type. It's an addition operator, so we want the type to be
"ADDOP". We could specify this directly, but it's right there as the second
token in the input, so we use $2. The second parameter is the op's flags: 0
means "nothing special". Then the things to add: the left and right hand
side of our expression, in scalar context.
Stacks
When perl executes something like "addop", how does it pass on its results
to the next op? The answer is, through the use of stacks. Perl has a number
of stacks to store things it's currently working on, and we'll look at the
three most important ones here.
Argument stack
Arguments are passed to PP code and returned from PP code using the
argument stack, "ST". The typical way to handle arguments is to pop them
off the stack, deal with them how you wish, and then push the result
back onto the stack. This is how, for instance, the cosine operator
works:
NV value;
value = POPn;
value = Perl_cos(value);
XPUSHn(value);
We'll see a more tricky example of this when we consider Perl's macros
below. "POPn" gives you the NV (floating point value) of the top SV on
the stack: the $x in "cos($x)". Then we compute the cosine, and push the
result back as an NV. The "X" in "XPUSHn" means that the stack should be
extended if necessary - it can't be necessary here, because we know
there's room for one more item on the stack, since we've just removed
one! The "XPUSH*" macros at least guarantee safety.
Alternatively, you can fiddle with the stack directly: "SP" gives you
the first element in your portion of the stack, and "TOP*" gives you the
top SV/IV/NV/etc. on the stack. So, for instance, to do unary negation
of an integer:
SETi(-TOPi);
Just set the integer value of the top stack entry to its negation.
Argument stack manipulation in the core is exactly the same as it is in
XSUBs - see perlxstut, perlxs and perlguts for a longer description of
the macros used in stack manipulation.
Mark stack
I say "your portion of the stack" above because PP code doesn't
necessarily get the whole stack to itself: if your function calls
another function, you'll only want to expose the arguments aimed for the
called function, and not (necessarily) let it get at your own data. The
way we do this is to have a "virtual" bottom-of-stack, exposed to each
function. The mark stack keeps bookmarks to locations in the argument
stack usable by each function. For instance, when dealing with a tied
variable, (internally, something with "P" magic) Perl has to call
methods for accesses to the tied variables. However, we need to separate
the arguments exposed to the method to the argument exposed to the
original function - the store or fetch or whatever it may be. Here's how
the tied "push" is implemented; see "av_push" in av.c:
1 PUSHMARK(SP);
2 EXTEND(SP,2);
3 PUSHs(SvTIED_obj((SV*)av, mg));
4 PUSHs(val);
5 PUTBACK;
6 ENTER;
7 call_method("PUSH", G_SCALAR|G_DISCARD);
8 LEAVE;
9 POPSTACK;
The lines which concern the mark stack are the first, fifth and last
lines: they save away, restore and remove the current position of the
argument stack.
Let's examine the whole implementation, for practice:
1 PUSHMARK(SP);
Push the current state of the stack pointer onto the mark stack. This is
so that when we've finished adding items to the argument stack, Perl
knows how many things we've added recently.
2 EXTEND(SP,2);
3 PUSHs(SvTIED_obj((SV*)av, mg));
4 PUSHs(val);
We're going to add two more items onto the argument stack: when you have
a tied array, the "PUSH" subroutine receives the object and the value to
be pushed, and that's exactly what we have here - the tied object,
retrieved with "SvTIED_obj", and the value, the SV "val".
5 PUTBACK;
Next we tell Perl to make the change to the global stack pointer: "dSP"
only gave us a local copy, not a reference to the global.
6 ENTER;
7 call_method("PUSH", G_SCALAR|G_DISCARD);
8 LEAVE;
"ENTER" and "LEAVE" localise a block of code - they make sure that all
variables are tidied up, everything that has been localised gets its
previous value returned, and so on. Think of them as the "{" and "}" of
a Perl block.
To actually do the magic method call, we have to call a subroutine in
Perl space: "call_method" takes care of that, and it's described in
perlcall. We call the "PUSH" method in scalar context, and we're going
to discard its return value.
9 POPSTACK;
Finally, we remove the value we placed on the mark stack, since we don't
need it any more.
Save stack
C doesn't have a concept of local scope, so perl provides one. We've
seen that "ENTER" and "LEAVE" are used as scoping braces; the save stack
implements the C equivalent of, for example:
{
local $foo = 42;
...
}
See "Localising Changes" in perlguts for how to use the save stack.
Millions of Macros
One thing you'll notice about the Perl source is that it's full of macros.
Some have called the pervasive use of macros the hardest thing to
understand, others find it adds to clarity. Let's take an example, the code
which implements the addition operator:
1 PP(pp_add)
2 {
3 dSP; dATARGET; tryAMAGICbin(add,opASSIGN);
4 {
5 dPOPTOPnnrl_ul;
6 SETn( left + right );
7 RETURN;
8 }
9 }
Every line here (apart from the braces, of course) contains a macro. The
first line sets up the function declaration as Perl expects for PP code;
line 3 sets up variable declarations for the argument stack and the target,
the return value of the operation. Finally, it tries to see if the addition
operation is overloaded; if so, the appropriate subroutine is called.
Line 5 is another variable declaration - all variable declarations start
with "d" - which pops from the top of the argument stack two NVs (hence
"nn") and puts them into the variables "right" and "left", hence the "rl".
These are the two operands to the addition operator. Next, we call "SETn"
to set the NV of the return value to the result of adding the two values.
This done, we return - the "RETURN" macro makes sure that our return value
is properly handled, and we pass the next operator to run back to the main
run loop.
Most of these macros are explained in perlapi, and some of the more
important ones are explained in perlxs as well. Pay special attention to
"Background and PERL_IMPLICIT_CONTEXT" in perlguts for information on the
"[pad]THX_?" macros.
The .i Targets
You can expand the macros in a foo.c file by saying
make foo.i
which will expand the macros using cpp. Don't be scared by the results.
Poking at Perl
To really poke around with Perl, you'll probably want to build Perl for
debugging, like this:
./Configure -d -D optimize=-g
make
"-g" is a flag to the C compiler to have it produce debugging information
which will allow us to step through a running program. Configure will also
turn on the "DEBUGGING" compilation symbol which enables all the internal
debugging code in Perl. There are a whole bunch of things you can debug
with this: perlrun lists them all, and the best way to find out about them
is to play about with them. The most useful options are probably
l Context (loop) stack processing
t Trace execution
o Method and overloading resolution
c String/numeric conversions
Some of the functionality of the debugging code can be achieved using XS
modules.
-Dr => use re 'debug'
-Dx => use O 'Debug'
Using a source-level debugger
If the debugging output of "-D" doesn't help you, it's time to step through
perl's execution with a source-level debugger.
· We'll use "gdb" for our examples here; the principles will apply to any
debugger, but check the manual of the one you're using.
To fire up the debugger, type
gdb ./perl
You'll want to do that in your Perl source tree so the debugger can read
the source code. You should see the copyright message, followed by the
prompt.
(gdb)
"help" will get you into the documentation, but here are the most useful
commands:
run [args]
Run the program with the given arguments.
break function_name
break source.c:xxx
Tells the debugger that we'll want to pause execution when we reach
either the named function (but see "Internal Functions" in perlguts!) or
the given line in the named source file.
step
Steps through the program a line at a time.
next
Steps through the program a line at a time, without descending into
functions.
continue
Run until the next breakpoint.
finish
Run until the end of the current function, then stop again.
'enter'
Just pressing Enter will do the most recent operation again - it's a
blessing when stepping through miles of source code.
print
Execute the given C code and print its results. WARNING: Perl makes
heavy use of macros, and gdb does not necessarily support macros (see
later "gdb macro support"). You'll have to substitute them yourself, or
to invoke cpp on the source code files (see "The .i Targets") So, for
instance, you can't say
print SvPV_nolen(sv)
but you have to say
print Perl_sv_2pv_nolen(sv)
You may find it helpful to have a "macro dictionary", which you can produce
by saying "cpp -dM perl.c | sort". Even then, cpp won't recursively apply
those macros for you.
gdb macro support
Recent versions of gdb have fairly good macro support, but in order to use
it you'll need to compile perl with macro definitions included in the
debugging information. Using gcc version 3.1, this means configuring with
"-Doptimize=-g3". Other compilers might use a different switch (if they
support debugging macros at all).
Dumping Perl Data Structures
One way to get around this macro hell is to use the dumping functions in
dump.c; these work a little like an internal Devel::Peek, but they also
cover OPs and other structures that you can't get at from Perl. Let's take
an example. We'll use the "$a = $b + $c" we used before, but give it a bit
of context: "$b = "6XXXX"; $c = 2.3;". Where's a good place to stop and
poke around?
What about "pp_add", the function we examined earlier to implement the "+"
operator:
(gdb) break Perl_pp_add
Breakpoint 1 at 0x46249f: file pp_hot.c, line 309.
Notice we use "Perl_pp_add" and not "pp_add" - see "Internal Functions" in
perlguts. With the breakpoint in place, we can run our program:
(gdb) run -e '$b = "6XXXX"; $c = 2.3; $a = $b + $c'
Lots of junk will go past as gdb reads in the relevant source files and
libraries, and then:
Breakpoint 1, Perl_pp_add () at pp_hot.c:309
309 dSP; dATARGET; tryAMAGICbin(add,opASSIGN);
(gdb) step
311 dPOPTOPnnrl_ul;
(gdb)
We looked at this bit of code before, and we said that "dPOPTOPnnrl_ul"
arranges for two "NV"s to be placed into "left" and "right" - let's
slightly expand it:
#define dPOPTOPnnrl_ul NV right = POPn; \
SV *leftsv = TOPs; \
NV left = USE_LEFT(leftsv) ? SvNV(leftsv) : 0.0
"POPn" takes the SV from the top of the stack and obtains its NV either
directly (if "SvNOK" is set) or by calling the "sv_2nv" function. "TOPs"
takes the next SV from the top of the stack - yes, "POPn" uses "TOPs" - but
doesn't remove it. We then use "SvNV" to get the NV from "leftsv" in the
same way as before - yes, "POPn" uses "SvNV".
Since we don't have an NV for $b, we'll have to use "sv_2nv" to convert it.
If we step again, we'll find ourselves there:
Perl_sv_2nv (sv=0xa0675d0) at sv.c:1669
1669 if (!sv)
(gdb)
We can now use "Perl_sv_dump" to investigate the SV:
SV = PV(0xa057cc0) at 0xa0675d0
REFCNT = 1
FLAGS = (POK,pPOK)
PV = 0xa06a510 "6XXXX"\0
CUR = 5
LEN = 6
$1 = void
We know we're going to get 6 from this, so let's finish the subroutine:
(gdb) finish
Run till exit from #0 Perl_sv_2nv (sv=0xa0675d0) at sv.c:1671
0x462669 in Perl_pp_add () at pp_hot.c:311
311 dPOPTOPnnrl_ul;
We can also dump out this op: the current op is always stored in "PL_op",
and we can dump it with "Perl_op_dump". This'll give us similar output to
B::Debug.
{
13 TYPE = add ===> 14
TARG = 1
FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
{
TYPE = null ===> (12)
(was rv2sv)
FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
{
11 TYPE = gvsv ===> 12
FLAGS = (SCALAR)
GV = main::b
}
}
# finish this later #
Patching
All right, we've now had a look at how to navigate the Perl sources and
some things you'll need to know when fiddling with them. Let's now get on
and create a simple patch. Here's something Larry suggested: if a "U" is
the first active format during a "pack", (for example, "pack "U3C8",
@stuff") then the resulting string should be treated as UTF-8 encoded.
How do we prepare to fix this up? First we locate the code in question -
the "pack" happens at runtime, so it's going to be in one of the pp files.
Sure enough, "pp_pack" is in pp.c. Since we're going to be altering this
file, let's copy it to pp.c~.
[Well, it was in pp.c when this tutorial was written. It has now been split
off with "pp_unpack" to its own file, pp_pack.c]
Now let's look over "pp_pack": we take a pattern into "pat", and then loop
over the pattern, taking each format character in turn into "datum_type".
Then for each possible format character, we swallow up the other arguments
in the pattern (a field width, an asterisk, and so on) and convert the next
chunk input into the specified format, adding it onto the output SV "cat".
How do we know if the "U" is the first format in the "pat"? Well, if we
have a pointer to the start of "pat" then, if we see a "U" we can test
whether we're still at the start of the string. So, here's where "pat" is
set up:
STRLEN fromlen;
register char *pat = SvPVx(*++MARK, fromlen);
register char *patend = pat + fromlen;
register I32 len;
I32 datumtype;
SV *fromstr;
We'll have another string pointer in there:
STRLEN fromlen;
register char *pat = SvPVx(*++MARK, fromlen);
register char *patend = pat + fromlen;
+ char *patcopy;
register I32 len;
I32 datumtype;
SV *fromstr;
And just before we start the loop, we'll set "patcopy" to be the start of
"pat":
items = SP - MARK;
MARK++;
sv_setpvn(cat, "", 0);
+ patcopy = pat;
while (pat < patend) {
Now if we see a "U" which was at the start of the string, we turn on the
"UTF8" flag for the output SV, "cat":
+ if (datumtype == 'U' && pat==patcopy+1)
+ SvUTF8_on(cat);
if (datumtype == '#') {
while (pat < patend && *pat != '\n')
pat++;
Remember that it has to be "patcopy+1" because the first character of the
string is the "U" which has been swallowed into "datumtype!"
Oops, we forgot one thing: what if there are spaces at the start of the
pattern? "pack(" U*", @stuff)" will have "U" as the first active
character, even though it's not the first thing in the pattern. In this
case, we have to advance "patcopy" along with "pat" when we see spaces:
if (isSPACE(datumtype))
continue;
needs to become
if (isSPACE(datumtype)) {
patcopy++;
continue;
}
OK. That's the C part done. Now we must do two additional things before
this patch is ready to go: we've changed the behaviour of Perl, and so we
must document that change. We must also provide some more regression tests
to make sure our patch works and doesn't create a bug somewhere else along
the line.
The regression tests for each operator live in t/op/, and so we make a copy
of t/op/pack.t to t/op/pack.t~. Now we can add our tests to the end. First,
we'll test that the "U" does indeed create Unicode strings.
t/op/pack.t has a sensible ok() function, but if it didn't we could use the
one from t/test.pl.
require './test.pl';
plan( tests => 159 );
so instead of this:
print 'not ' unless "1.20.300.4000" eq sprintf "%vd", pack("U*",1,20,300,4000);
print "ok $test\n"; $test++;
we can write the more sensible (see Test::More for a full explanation of
is() and other testing functions).
is( "1.20.300.4000", sprintf "%vd", pack("U*",1,20,300,4000),
"U* produces unicode" );
Now we'll test that we got that space-at-the-beginning business right:
is( "1.20.300.4000", sprintf "%vd", pack(" U*",1,20,300,4000),
" with spaces at the beginning" );
And finally we'll test that we don't make Unicode strings if "U" is not the
first active format:
isnt( v1.20.300.4000, sprintf "%vd", pack("C0U*",1,20,300,4000),
"U* not first isn't unicode" );
Mustn't forget to change the number of tests which appears at the top, or
else the automated tester will get confused. This will either look like
this:
print "1..156\n";
or this:
plan( tests => 156 );
We now compile up Perl, and run it through the test suite. Our new tests
pass, hooray!
Finally, the documentation. The job is never done until the paperwork is
over, so let's describe the change we've just made. The relevant place is
pod/perlfunc.pod; again, we make a copy, and then we'll insert this text in
the description of "pack":
=item *
If the pattern begins with a C<U>, the resulting string will be treated
as UTF-8-encoded Unicode. You can force UTF-8 encoding on in a string
with an initial C<U0>, and the bytes that follow will be interpreted as
Unicode characters. If you don't want this to happen, you can begin your
pattern with C<C0> (or anything else) to force Perl not to UTF-8 encode your
string, and then follow this with a C<U*> somewhere in your pattern.
All done. Now let's create the patch. Porting/patching.pod tells us that if
we're making major changes, we should copy the entire directory to
somewhere safe before we begin fiddling, and then do
diff -ruN old new > patch
However, we know which files we've changed, and we can simply do this:
diff -u pp.c~ pp.c > patch
diff -u t/op/pack.t~ t/op/pack.t >> patch
diff -u pod/perlfunc.pod~ pod/perlfunc.pod >> patch
We end up with a patch looking a little like this:
--- pp.c~ Fri Jun 02 04:34:10 2000
+++ pp.c Fri Jun 16 11:37:25 2000
@@ -4375,6 +4375,7 @@
register I32 items;
STRLEN fromlen;
register char *pat = SvPVx(*++MARK, fromlen);
+ char *patcopy;
register char *patend = pat + fromlen;
register I32 len;
I32 datumtype;
@@ -4405,6 +4406,7 @@
...
And finally, we submit it, with our rationale, to perl5-porters. Job done!
Patching a core module
This works just like patching anything else, with an extra consideration.
Many core modules also live on CPAN. If this is so, patch the CPAN version
instead of the core and send the patch off to the module maintainer (with a
copy to p5p). This will help the module maintainer keep the CPAN version
in sync with the core version without constantly scanning p5p.
The list of maintainers of core modules is usefully documented in
Porting/Maintainers.pl.
Adding a new function to the core
If, as part of a patch to fix a bug, or just because you have an especially
good idea, you decide to add a new function to the core, discuss your ideas
on p5p well before you start work. It may be that someone else has already
attempted to do what you are considering and can give lots of good advice
or even provide you with bits of code that they already started (but never
finished).
You have to follow all of the advice given above for patching. It is
extremely important to test any addition thoroughly and add new tests to
explore all boundary conditions that your new function is expected to
handle. If your new function is used only by one module (e.g. toke), then
it should probably be named S_your_function (for static); on the other
hand, if you expect it to accessible from other functions in Perl, you
should name it Perl_your_function. See "Internal Functions" in perlguts
for more details.
The location of any new code is also an important consideration. Don't
just create a new top level .c file and put your code there; you would have
to make changes to Configure (so the Makefile is created properly), as well
as possibly lots of include files. This is strictly pumpking business.
It is better to add your function to one of the existing top level source
code files, but your choice is complicated by the nature of the Perl
distribution. Only the files that are marked as compiled static are
located in the perl executable. Everything else is located in the shared
library (or DLL if you are running under WIN32). So, for example, if a
function was only used by functions located in toke.c, then your code can
go in toke.c. If, however, you want to call the function from universal.c,
then you should put your code in another location, for example util.c.
In addition to writing your c-code, you will need to create an appropriate
entry in embed.pl describing your function, then run 'make regen_headers'
to create the entries in the numerous header files that perl needs to
compile correctly. See "Internal Functions" in perlguts for information on
the various options that you can set in embed.pl. You will forget to do
this a few (or many) times and you will get warnings during the compilation
phase. Make sure that you mention this when you post your patch to P5P;
the pumpking needs to know this.
When you write your new code, please be conscious of existing code
conventions used in the perl source files. See perlstyle for details.
Although most of the guidelines discussed seem to focus on Perl code,
rather than c, they all apply (except when they don't ;). See also
Porting/patching.pod file in the Perl source distribution for lots of
details about both formatting and submitting patches of your changes.
Lastly, TEST TEST TEST TEST TEST any code before posting to p5p. Test on
as many platforms as you can find. Test as many perl Configure options as
you can (e.g. MULTIPLICITY). If you have profiling or memory tools, see
"EXTERNAL TOOLS FOR DEBUGGING PERL" below for how to use them to further
test your code. Remember that most of the people on P5P are doing this on
their own time and don't have the time to debug your code.
Writing a test
Every module and built-in function has an associated test file (or
should...). If you add or change functionality, you have to write a test.
If you fix a bug, you have to write a test so that bug never comes back.
If you alter the docs, it would be nice to test what the new documentation
says.
In short, if you submit a patch you probably also have to patch the tests.
For modules, the test file is right next to the module itself.
lib/strict.t tests lib/strict.pm. This is a recent innovation, so there
are some snags (and it would be wonderful for you to brush them out), but
it basically works that way. Everything else lives in t/.
t/base/
Testing of the absolute basic functionality of Perl. Things like "if",
basic file reads and writes, simple regexes, etc. These are run first
in the test suite and if any of them fail, something is really broken.
t/cmd/
These test the basic control structures, "if/else", "while",
subroutines, etc.
t/comp/
Tests basic issues of how Perl parses and compiles itself.
t/io/
Tests for built-in IO functions, including command line arguments.
t/lib/
The old home for the module tests, you shouldn't put anything new in
here. There are still some bits and pieces hanging around in here that
need to be moved. Perhaps you could move them? Thanks!
t/op/
Tests for perl's built in functions that don't fit into any of the other
directories.
t/pod/
Tests for POD directives. There are still some tests for the Pod
modules hanging around in here that need to be moved out into lib/.
t/run/
Testing features of how perl actually runs, including exit codes and
handling of PERL* environment variables.
t/uni/
Tests for the core support of Unicode.
t/win32/
Windows-specific tests.
t/x2p
A test suite for the s2p converter.
The core uses the same testing style as the rest of Perl, a simple "ok/not
ok" run through Test::Harness, but there are a few special considerations.
There are three ways to write a test in the core. Test::More, t/test.pl
and ad hoc "print $test ? "ok 42\n" : "not ok 42\n"". The decision of
which to use depends on what part of the test suite you're working on.
This is a measure to prevent a high-level failure (such as Config.pm
breaking) from causing basic functionality tests to fail.
t/base t/comp
Since we don't know if require works, or even subroutines, use ad hoc
tests for these two. Step carefully to avoid using the feature being
tested.
t/cmd t/run t/io t/op
Now that basic require() and subroutines are tested, you can use the
t/test.pl library which emulates the important features of Test::More
while using a minimum of core features.
You can also conditionally use certain libraries like Config, but be
sure to skip the test gracefully if it's not there.
t/lib ext lib
Now that the core of Perl is tested, Test::More can be used. You can
also use the full suite of core modules in the tests.
When you say "make test" Perl uses the t/TEST program to run the test suite
(except under Win32 where it uses t/harness instead.) All tests are run
from the t/ directory, not the directory which contains the test. This
causes some problems with the tests in lib/, so here's some opportunity for
some patching.
You must be triply conscious of cross-platform concerns. This usually
boils down to using File::Spec and avoiding things like "fork()" and
"system()" unless absolutely necessary.
Special Make Test Targets
There are various special make targets that can be used to test Perl
slightly differently than the standard "test" target. Not all them are
expected to give a 100% success rate. Many of them have several aliases,
and many of them are not available on certain operating systems.
coretest
Run perl on all core tests (t/* and lib/[a-z]* pragma tests).
(Not available on Win32)
test.deparse
Run all the tests through B::Deparse. Not all tests will succeed.
(Not available on Win32)
test.taintwarn
Run all tests with the -t command-line switch. Not all tests are
expected to succeed (until they're specifically fixed, of course).
(Not available on Win32)
minitest
Run miniperl on t/base, t/comp, t/cmd, t/run, t/io, t/op, and t/uni
tests.
test.valgrind check.valgrind utest.valgrind ucheck.valgrind
(Only in Linux) Run all the tests using the memory leak + naughty
memory access tool "valgrind". The log files will be named
testname.valgrind.
test.third check.third utest.third ucheck.third
(Only in Tru64) Run all the tests using the memory leak + naughty
memory access tool "Third Degree". The log files will be named
perl.3log.testname.
test.torture torturetest
Run all the usual tests and some extra tests. As of Perl 5.8.0 the
only extra tests are Abigail's JAPHs, t/japh/abigail.t.
You can also run the torture test with t/harness by giving "-torture"
argument to t/harness.
utest ucheck test.utf8 check.utf8
Run all the tests with -Mutf8. Not all tests will succeed.
(Not available on Win32)
minitest.utf16 test.utf16
Runs the tests with UTF-16 encoded scripts, encoded with different
versions of this encoding.
"make utest.utf16" runs the test suite with a combination of "-utf8"
and "-utf16" arguments to t/TEST.
(Not available on Win32)
test_harness
Run the test suite with the t/harness controlling program, instead of
t/TEST. t/harness is more sophisticated, and uses the Test::Harness
module, thus using this test target supposes that perl mostly works.
The main advantage for our purposes is that it prints a detailed
summary of failed tests at the end. Also, unlike t/TEST, it doesn't
redirect stderr to stdout.
Note that under Win32 t/harness is always used instead of t/TEST, so
there is no special "test_harness" target.
Under Win32's "test" target you may use the TEST_SWITCHES and
TEST_FILES environment variables to control the behaviour of t/harness.
This means you can say
nmake test TEST_FILES="op/*.t"
nmake test TEST_SWITCHES="-torture" TEST_FILES="op/*.t"
test-notty test_notty
Sets PERL_SKIP_TTY_TEST to true before running normal test.
Running tests by hand
You can run part of the test suite by hand by using one the following
commands from the t/ directory :
./perl -I../lib TEST list-of-.t-files
or
./perl -I../lib harness list-of-.t-files
(if you don't specify test scripts, the whole test suite will be run.)
Using t/harness for testing
If you use "harness" for testing you have several command line options
available to you. The arguments are as follows, and are in the order that
they must appear if used together.
harness -v -torture -re=pattern LIST OF FILES TO TEST
harness -v -torture -re LIST OF PATTERNS TO MATCH
If "LIST OF FILES TO TEST" is omitted the file list is obtained from the
manifest. The file list may include shell wildcards which will be expanded
out.
-v Run the tests under verbose mode so you can see what tests were run,
and debug outbut.
-torture
Run the torture tests as well as the normal set.
-re=PATTERN
Filter the file list so that all the test files run match PATTERN.
Note that this form is distinct from the -re LIST OF PATTERNS form
below in that it allows the file list to be provided as well.
-re LIST OF PATTERNS
Filter the file list so that all the test files run match
/(LIST|OF|PATTERNS)/. Note that with this form the patterns are joined
by '|' and you cannot supply a list of files, instead the test files
are obtained from the MANIFEST.
You can run an individual test by a command similar to
./perl -I../lib patho/to/foo.t
except that the harnesses set up some environment variables that may affect
the execution of the test :
PERL_CORE=1
indicates that we're running this test part of the perl core test
suite. This is useful for modules that have a dual life on CPAN.
PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL=2
is set to 2 if it isn't set already (see "PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL")
PERL
(used only by t/TEST) if set, overrides the path to the perl executable
that should be used to run the tests (the default being ./perl).
PERL_SKIP_TTY_TEST
if set, tells to skip the tests that need a terminal. It's actually set
automatically by the Makefile, but can also be forced artificially by
running 'make test_notty'.
EXTERNAL TOOLS FOR DEBUGGING PERL
Sometimes it helps to use external tools while debugging and testing Perl.
This section tries to guide you through using some common testing and
debugging tools with Perl. This is meant as a guide to interfacing these
tools with Perl, not as any kind of guide to the use of the tools
themselves.
NOTE 1: Running under memory debuggers such as Purify, valgrind, or Third
Degree greatly slows down the execution: seconds become minutes, minutes
become hours. For example as of Perl 5.8.1, the ext/Encode/t/Unicode.t
takes extraordinarily long to complete under e.g. Purify, Third Degree, and
valgrind. Under valgrind it takes more than six hours, even on a snappy
computer-- the said test must be doing something that is quite unfriendly
for memory debuggers. If you don't feel like waiting, that you can simply
kill away the perl process.
NOTE 2: To minimize the number of memory leak false alarms (see
"PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL" for more information), you have to have environment
variable PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL set to 2. The TEST and harness scripts do
that automatically. But if you are running some of the tests manually--
for csh-like shells:
setenv PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL 2
and for Bourne-type shells:
PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL=2
export PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL
or in UNIXy environments you can also use the "env" command:
env PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL=2 valgrind ./perl -Ilib ...
NOTE 3: There are known memory leaks when there are compile-time errors
within eval or require, seeing "S_doeval" in the call stack is a good sign
of these. Fixing these leaks is non-trivial, unfortunately, but they must
be fixed eventually.
Rational Software's Purify
Purify is a commercial tool that is helpful in identifying memory overruns,
wild pointers, memory leaks and other such badness. Perl must be compiled
in a specific way for optimal testing with Purify. Purify is available
under Windows NT, Solaris, HP-UX, SGI, and Siemens Unix.
Purify on Unix
On Unix, Purify creates a new Perl binary. To get the most benefit out of
Purify, you should create the perl to Purify using:
sh Configure -Accflags=-DPURIFY -Doptimize='-g' \
-Uusemymalloc -Dusemultiplicity
where these arguments mean:
-Accflags=-DPURIFY
Disables Perl's arena memory allocation functions, as well as forcing
use of memory allocation functions derived from the system malloc.
-Doptimize='-g'
Adds debugging information so that you see the exact source statements
where the problem occurs. Without this flag, all you will see is the
source filename of where the error occurred.
-Uusemymalloc
Disable Perl's malloc so that Purify can more closely monitor
allocations and leaks. Using Perl's malloc will make Purify report
most leaks in the "potential" leaks category.
-Dusemultiplicity
Enabling the multiplicity option allows perl to clean up thoroughly
when the interpreter shuts down, which reduces the number of bogus leak
reports from Purify.
Once you've compiled a perl suitable for Purify'ing, then you can just:
make pureperl
which creates a binary named 'pureperl' that has been Purify'ed. This
binary is used in place of the standard 'perl' binary when you want to
debug Perl memory problems.
As an example, to show any memory leaks produced during the standard Perl
testset you would create and run the Purify'ed perl as:
make pureperl
cd t
../pureperl -I../lib harness
which would run Perl on test.pl and report any memory problems.
Purify outputs messages in "Viewer" windows by default. If you don't have
a windowing environment or if you simply want the Purify output to
unobtrusively go to a log file instead of to the interactive window, use
these following options to output to the log file "perl.log":
setenv PURIFYOPTIONS "-chain-length=25 -windows=no \
-log-file=perl.log -append-logfile=yes"
If you plan to use the "Viewer" windows, then you only need this option:
setenv PURIFYOPTIONS "-chain-length=25"
In Bourne-type shells:
PURIFYOPTIONS="..."
export PURIFYOPTIONS
or if you have the "env" utility:
env PURIFYOPTIONS="..." ../pureperl ...
Purify on NT
Purify on Windows NT instruments the Perl binary 'perl.exe' on the fly.
There are several options in the makefile you should change to get the most
use out of Purify:
DEFINES
You should add -DPURIFY to the DEFINES line so the DEFINES line looks
something like:
DEFINES = -DWIN32 -D_CONSOLE -DNO_STRICT $(CRYPT_FLAG) -DPURIFY=1
to disable Perl's arena memory allocation functions, as well as to
force use of memory allocation functions derived from the system
malloc.
USE_MULTI = define
Enabling the multiplicity option allows perl to clean up thoroughly
when the interpreter shuts down, which reduces the number of bogus leak
reports from Purify.
#PERL_MALLOC = define
Disable Perl's malloc so that Purify can more closely monitor
allocations and leaks. Using Perl's malloc will make Purify report
most leaks in the "potential" leaks category.
CFG = Debug
Adds debugging information so that you see the exact source statements
where the problem occurs. Without this flag, all you will see is the
source filename of where the error occurred.
As an example, to show any memory leaks produced during the standard Perl
testset you would create and run Purify as:
cd win32
make
cd ../t
purify ../perl -I../lib harness
which would instrument Perl in memory, run Perl on test.pl, then finally
report any memory problems.
valgrind
The excellent valgrind tool can be used to find out both memory leaks and
illegal memory accesses. As of August 2003 it unfortunately works only on
x86 (ELF) Linux. The special "test.valgrind" target can be used to run the
tests under valgrind. Found errors and memory leaks are logged in files
named test.valgrind.
As system libraries (most notably glibc) are also triggering errors,
valgrind allows to suppress such errors using suppression files. The
default suppression file that comes with valgrind already catches a lot of
them. Some additional suppressions are defined in t/perl.supp.
To get valgrind and for more information see
http://developer.kde.org/~sewardj/
Compaq's/Digital's/HP's Third Degree
Third Degree is a tool for memory leak detection and memory access checks.
It is one of the many tools in the ATOM toolkit. The toolkit is only
available on Tru64 (formerly known as Digital UNIX formerly known as DEC
OSF/1).
When building Perl, you must first run Configure with -Doptimize=-g and
-Uusemymalloc flags, after that you can use the make targets "perl.third"
and "test.third". (What is required is that Perl must be compiled using
the "-g" flag, you may need to re-Configure.)
The short story is that with "atom" you can instrument the Perl executable
to create a new executable called perl.third. When the instrumented
executable is run, it creates a log of dubious memory traffic in file
called perl.3log. See the manual pages of atom and third for more
information. The most extensive Third Degree documentation is available in
the Compaq "Tru64 UNIX Programmer's Guide", chapter "Debugging Programs
with Third Degree".
The "test.third" leaves a lot of files named foo_bar.3log in the t/
subdirectory. There is a problem with these files: Third Degree is so
effective that it finds problems also in the system libraries. Therefore
you should used the Porting/thirdclean script to cleanup the *.3log files.
There are also leaks that for given certain definition of a leak, aren't.
See "PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL" for more information.
PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL
If you want to run any of the tests yourself manually using e.g. valgrind,
or the pureperl or perl.third executables, please note that by default perl
does not explicitly cleanup all the memory it has allocated (such as global
memory arenas) but instead lets the exit() of the whole program "take care"
of such allocations, also known as "global destruction of objects".
There is a way to tell perl to do complete cleanup: set the environment
variable PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL to a non-zero value. The t/TEST wrapper does
set this to 2, and this is what you need to do too, if you don't want to
see the "global leaks": For example, for "third-degreed" Perl:
env PERL_DESTRUCT_LEVEL=2 ./perl.third -Ilib t/foo/bar.t
(Note: the mod_perl apache module uses also this environment variable for
its own purposes and extended its semantics. Refer to the mod_perl
documentation for more information. Also, spawned threads do the equivalent
of setting this variable to the value 1.)
If, at the end of a run you get the message N scalars leaked, you can
recompile with "-DDEBUG_LEAKING_SCALARS", which will cause the addresses of
all those leaked SVs to be dumped; it also converts "new_SV()" from a macro
into a real function, so you can use your favourite debugger to discover
where those pesky SVs were allocated.
Profiling
Depending on your platform there are various of profiling Perl.
There are two commonly used techniques of profiling executables:
statistical time-sampling and basic-block counting.
The first method takes periodically samples of the CPU program counter, and
since the program counter can be correlated with the code generated for
functions, we get a statistical view of in which functions the program is
spending its time. The caveats are that very small/fast functions have
lower probability of showing up in the profile, and that periodically
interrupting the program (this is usually done rather frequently, in the
scale of milliseconds) imposes an additional overhead that may skew the
results. The first problem can be alleviated by running the code for
longer (in general this is a good idea for profiling), the second problem
is usually kept in guard by the profiling tools themselves.
The second method divides up the generated code into basic blocks. Basic
blocks are sections of code that are entered only in the beginning and
exited only at the end. For example, a conditional jump starts a basic
block. Basic block profiling usually works by instrumenting the code by
adding enter basic block #nnnn book-keeping code to the generated code.
During the execution of the code the basic block counters are then updated
appropriately. The caveat is that the added extra code can skew the
results: again, the profiling tools usually try to factor their own effects
out of the results.
Gprof Profiling
gprof is a profiling tool available in many UNIX platforms, it uses
statistical time-sampling.
You can build a profiled version of perl called "perl.gprof" by invoking
the make target "perl.gprof" (What is required is that Perl must be
compiled using the "-pg" flag, you may need to re-Configure). Running the
profiled version of Perl will create an output file called gmon.out is
created which contains the profiling data collected during the execution.
The gprof tool can then display the collected data in various ways.
Usually gprof understands the following options:
-a Suppress statically defined functions from the profile.
-b Suppress the verbose descriptions in the profile.
-e routine
Exclude the given routine and its descendants from the profile.
-f routine
Display only the given routine and its descendants in the profile.
-s Generate a summary file called gmon.sum which then may be given to
subsequent gprof runs to accumulate data over several runs.
-z Display routines that have zero usage.
For more detailed explanation of the available commands and output formats,
see your own local documentation of gprof.
GCC gcov Profiling
Starting from GCC 3.0 basic block profiling is officially available for the
GNU CC.
You can build a profiled version of perl called perl.gcov by invoking the
make target "perl.gcov" (what is required that Perl must be compiled using
gcc with the flags "-fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage", you may need to
re-Configure).
Running the profiled version of Perl will cause profile output to be
generated. For each source file an accompanying ".da" file will be
created.
To display the results you use the "gcov" utility (which should be
installed if you have gcc 3.0 or newer installed). gcov is run on source
code files, like this
gcov sv.c
which will cause sv.c.gcov to be created. The .gcov files contain the
source code annotated with relative frequencies of execution indicated by
"#" markers.
Useful options of gcov include "-b" which will summarise the basic block,
branch, and function call coverage, and "-c" which instead of relative
frequencies will use the actual counts. For more information on the use of
gcov and basic block profiling with gcc, see the latest GNU CC manual, as
of GCC 3.0 see
http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.0/gcc.html
and its section titled "8. gcov: a Test Coverage Program"
http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.0/gcc_8.html#SEC132
Pixie Profiling
Pixie is a profiling tool available on IRIX and Tru64 (aka Digital UNIX aka
DEC OSF/1) platforms. Pixie does its profiling using basic-block counting.
You can build a profiled version of perl called perl.pixie by invoking the
make target "perl.pixie" (what is required is that Perl must be compiled
using the "-g" flag, you may need to re-Configure).
In Tru64 a file called perl.Addrs will also be silently created, this file
contains the addresses of the basic blocks. Running the profiled version
of Perl will create a new file called "perl.Counts" which contains the
counts for the basic block for that particular program execution.
To display the results you use the prof utility. The exact incantation
depends on your operating system, "prof perl.Counts" in IRIX, and "prof
-pixie -all -L. perl" in Tru64.
In IRIX the following prof options are available:
-h Reports the most heavily used lines in descending order of use. Useful
for finding the hotspot lines.
-l Groups lines by procedure, with procedures sorted in descending order
of use. Within a procedure, lines are listed in source order. Useful
for finding the hotspots of procedures.
In Tru64 the following options are available:
-p[rocedures]
Procedures sorted in descending order by the number of cycles executed
in each procedure. Useful for finding the hotspot procedures. (This
is the default option.)
-h[eavy]
Lines sorted in descending order by the number of cycles executed in
each line. Useful for finding the hotspot lines.
-i[nvocations]
The called procedures are sorted in descending order by number of calls
made to the procedures. Useful for finding the most used procedures.
-l[ines]
Grouped by procedure, sorted by cycles executed per procedure. Useful
for finding the hotspots of procedures.
-testcoverage
The compiler emitted code for these lines, but the code was unexecuted.
-z[ero]
Unexecuted procedures.
For further information, see your system's manual pages for pixie and prof.
Miscellaneous tricks
· Those debugging perl with the DDD frontend over gdb may find the
following useful:
You can extend the data conversion shortcuts menu, so for example you
can display an SV's IV value with one click, without doing any typing.
To do that simply edit ~/.ddd/init file and add after:
! Display shortcuts.
Ddd*gdbDisplayShortcuts: \
/t () // Convert to Bin\n\
/d () // Convert to Dec\n\
/x () // Convert to Hex\n\
/o () // Convert to Oct(\n\
the following two lines:
((XPV*) (())->sv_any )->xpv_pv // 2pvx\n\
((XPVIV*) (())->sv_any )->xiv_iv // 2ivx
so now you can do ivx and pvx lookups or you can plug there the sv_peek
"conversion":
Perl_sv_peek(my_perl, (SV*)()) // sv_peek
(The my_perl is for threaded builds.) Just remember that every line,
but the last one, should end with \n\
Alternatively edit the init file interactively via: 3rd mouse button ->
New Display -> Edit Menu
Note: you can define up to 20 conversion shortcuts in the gdb section.
· If you see in a debugger a memory area mysteriously full of 0xabababab,
you may be seeing the effect of the Poison() macro, see perlclib.
CONCLUSION
We've had a brief look around the Perl source, an overview of the stages
perl goes through when it's running your code, and how to use a debugger to
poke at the Perl guts. We took a very simple problem and demonstrated how
to solve it fully - with documentation, regression tests, and finally a
patch for submission to p5p. Finally, we talked about how to use external
tools to debug and test Perl.
I'd now suggest you read over those references again, and then, as soon as
possible, get your hands dirty. The best way to learn is by doing, so:
· Subscribe to perl5-porters, follow the patches and try and understand
them; don't be afraid to ask if there's a portion you're not clear on -
who knows, you may unearth a bug in the patch...
· Keep up to date with the bleeding edge Perl distributions and get
familiar with the changes. Try and get an idea of what areas people are
working on and the changes they're making.
· Do read the README associated with your operating system, e.g.
README.aix on the IBM AIX OS. Don't hesitate to supply patches to that
README if you find anything missing or changed over a new OS release.
· Find an area of Perl that seems interesting to you, and see if you can
work out how it works. Scan through the source, and step over it in the
debugger. Play, poke, investigate, fiddle! You'll probably get to
understand not just your chosen area but a much wider range of perl's
activity as well, and probably sooner than you'd think.
The Road goes ever on and on, down from the door where it began.
If you can do these things, you've started on the long road to Perl
porting. Thanks for wanting to help make Perl better - and happy hacking!
AUTHOR
This document was written by Nathan Torkington, and is maintained by the
perl5-porters mailing list.
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